Over time, education has served as a basic channel for the establishment of members of society through the enlightenment of the mind which places individuals at an advantage in their daily activities. This education of the mind initially transmitted solely by mouth in the family and communities has evolved to western styled teaching, which is part of the package, of the evolution of societies. Western civilization is a product of evolutions from agrarian societies to information driven society and these evolutions have largely been supported and promoted by the education of the citizenry. Education can thus be said to be a channel for the initiation of social change, when the creative abilities of citizens are harmonized to bring about a desired change. Smith (n.d) defines education as a process which comes with the realization of truth and the possibility of using such truth, to encourage people which, ultimately leads to discovery. This is supported by Dewey in Smith (n.d) who posits that education is a social process which aims at exposing the potentials hidden in learners. This goes without saying that the entire educational process emanates from a need for respect beginning from self-respect and extended to others especially in the way people are treated.
As such, education should not just be informative but should ensure that respect for individuals which is a display of the wisdom learned is promoted. Education should also instill in individuals a burning desire to succeed and share available spots with others. This means that education should be an inclusive activity which positions members of society to live in such a way that would create space for others too. Thorndike in Farooq (2012) asserts that education represent growth while growth on the other hand involves many sided developments. He opines that this many sided development represent different things for different individuals, for some it might just be for better job prospects, improved quality of life, the ability to read and write for some and for others the ability to not just be creative but also evoke critical thoughts.
Gender on the other hand, defines and earmarks what is expected of men and women as a result of their distinct biological differences. It can thus be said to be a social construct which assigns particular roles, activities, behaviours that a society deems appropriate for each sex. (WHO, n.d). Wight (2010) opines that society educates children to accept facts such as not all behaviours are acceptable for both males and females which in essence means that there are acceptable behaviours for the sexes. In the educational scene, issues of gender come to play in the differential way boys and girls alike are treated in the classroom. Blickenstaff (2005) assert that it is normal to hear the saying that there are differences in the sexes and this explains the rationale behind the way women are presently being treated in society. She argues that this is aggravated by the masculine view and approach which society applies to situations due largely to the traditional inclination to culturally set gender roles. Hence, cultural influences play a major role of pressuring females to the status quo, that is, the traditional role of the female which limits the chances females have of getting a better future. Cullen and Luna (2006) opine that although there has been an increase in the number of women occupying administrative positions which was an exclusive preserve of the men, there is still a big gap to be filled. Priola (2007) on the other hand believes that even in the face of an increasing number of females in managerial positions, occupying these positions could likely create undue stress and tension for the woman as she is expected to exert a masculine force. This she argue could pose a serious threat to the identity of that female due to an identity conflict between her identity as a person and that which society expects of her by reason of occupying an administrative position.
From the foregoing, it can be said that gender is a major factor in determining what happens to a n individual beginning from the family, when the decision of who gets to be educated per time, to the school and community at large.
Theoretical Framework
The 1979 united nation’s adopted convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW) among other things highlights the need to incorporate principles of equality between men and women, and remove laws which discriminates women. To achieve this, tribunals are to be set up to effectively drive home the point that women should be protected from all forms of neglect, exploitation and abuse by persons, institutions and abuse by persons, institutions and organizations. This convention thus becomes the pedestal on which women are supposed to achieve equality between them and their male counterparts in all spheres of life be it politics, education or employment. This stand by CEDAW is also targeted at changing traditional ways of thinking as they act as strong forces that influence gender roles and relations in the home. Nimako (2011) opines that it is the desire to have the course of things changed that drives the struggle for change.
For Nigeria, the patriarchial tendencies of the society tend to place more relevance on males as against females. The National Coalition for affirmative action (NCAA) asserts that the nation falls short in the areas of allowing equal opportunities to both sexes to advance especially educationally. While also sharing this this equality in other areas such as politics, at the work place in the home and so on. Anderson (2011) argues that bridging the gender gap would require the right kind of leadership that would carry the passion needed for change with sincerity and compassion to instill confidence in the girl child vis-a-viz the women to take equal advantage of prevailing opportunities especially in education.
Gender Gaps in Education
World bank (2011) report indicates that around six million sub-Saharan Africans out of school girls are from Nigeria. This is against the back drop that this area as asserted by UNESCO (2002) as an area that has had the highest increases in female enrolment especially at the primary level. Thus, bridging the gap between gender and education would require an overhauling of the existing structures of society and the relationships between both sexes. UNICEF (2011:10) opines that “just working with girls and women does not necessarily advance gender equality or the empowerment of girls and women”. This is because although an initiative could be targeted at women and girls, it doesn’t mean that gender equality is being promoted. It could be a gender blind effort as long it doesn’t account for the requisite questions that relate to gender divisions, that is, who does what, who has access and control over the resources (who has what) and the imbalances between men and women. Hence, an initiative or programme which addresses only women might just be encouraging inequality. This goes to say that both girls and boys and in extension women and men have vulnerabilities which they face while enjoying different levels of access to opportunities and resources in the course of their lives which practically determines the path they take in life.
It can thus be said that, bridging this gender gap would likely initiate a process which could result in resistance to the status quo. For education, the following are identified as areas with gender gaps as stated in UNICEF (2011:3)
Literacy gap among youths
Completion rates for primary education between males and females
Inequality to educational opportunity
This being the case, it could be said that gender based disparities are reflected starting from the house (direct family) and extends on a larger scale to the communities. It covers the the immediate cost of paying for education in the form of tuition fees, and other contingencies that come with sending a child to school such as the cost of buying shoes, books, uniforms and other necessary kits for school and cost of transportation. The gender implication according to Noorani (2002) would then be that given the choice of either sending a male child or a female child to school, the male child is likely to get the spot. This is further worsened by the opportunity cost that comes with choosing not to use household help. This places female children at the receiving end, as traditional communal norm expects the girl child to do household chores and take care of her siblings as a way of helping out at home.
The cultural practice of early marriage as a result of the lower status ascribed to females is likely to result in little or no attention to the girl child by their families and the stereotypical manner with which teaching is done helps to perpetuate discrimination. Tiffin (2012) asserts that cultural practices in certain regions of Nigeria which place importance on the place of the woman in her husband’s house promote early marriages. Mundi (2013) opines that when the needs and interest of both males and females are considered, then a middle point can be reached that would engender equality. The world economic forum (WEF, 2006) introduced a world index for measuring gender gap known as the global gap index. This measures over time gender based disparities.
Table 1. Summary of Education- Gender gap at the Home and Community level and their gender dimensions.
Direct costs of education
Given the chance for a choice to be made about sending a child to school, the male child usually gets precedence
Indirect cost of education
Traditional gender roles puts the girls at a disadvantage
Attitudes and cultural practices
Early marriages and societies that are patriarchal in nature places less priority on the education of girls.
Health related issues, including poor nutrition and HIV and AIDS
Girls likely to on the care of family and are more vulnerable to exploitation.
Situations of crisis and instability
Girls more frequently expected to take charge of the home while boys get recruited for military service
Adapted from UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats (2011:3)
Literacy gap among youths
It is a fact that youth literacy gap between males and females exist, world bank report (2011) indicate that the existent gap in youth literacy had been shrinking. However, sub Saharan Africa, like other parts of the world has seen fewer females emerge from educational institutions with literacy skills as compared to their male counterparts. Holsinger and Jacob (2012:41) argues that Korea had to expand primary and secondary education to ensure the successful elimination of illiteracy among youths. UNESCO (2011) asserts that in Nigeria 4% of females are out of school, 78% may never go to school and 18% may enroll late. They argue thatwhen a girl has not enrolled in primary school by the age of 10, the chances of her enrolling become slim, as such she likely would never enroll.
With the above scenario, predicting, what the future would look like for females who never got to have a good education. UNESCO (2011:3) reveals that there are 44.1 million illiterate males as against 57.7 million illiterate females. This is supported by UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS, 2017:1) which reveal that “750 million adults-two thirds of whom are women still lack basic reading and writing skills”. The low youth literacy observed in sub Saharan Africa was linked to low access to schools, leaving school early and/or a poor quality in standards of education.
Table 2 Global illiterate population
Adults 15 and older
Youth 15-27
25-64
65 and older
Both sexes
750
102
507
141
Men
277
44
186
47
Women
473
58
321
94
Share of women %
63
57
63
67
Adapted from UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2017)
Completion rates for education for males and females
Completion rates looks at the number of males and females who successfully complete primary, secondary and tertiary as compared to the enrollment figures. UNESCO (2011) indicates that sub-Saharan Africa had achieved great gains in female enrolment at the primary level, secondary and tertiary enrolment indicate more male completion despite enrolment figures. Table 2 indicate that more females complete their bachelors and masters programme, but higher male completion is observed in advanced programmes and researches.
Table 3
Females
Males
Degree
53
47
B.Sc
54
46
Masters
45
55
Phd
29
71
Researchers
Adapted from UNESCO (n.d)
Completion rate is influenced by available income. The level of poverty would ultimately influence the choices made as regards the enrolment and completion of a child in school. Jani, Sanni and Hannu (2016) opine that the income a family receives would determine the level of education their children get and regulates the number of children who attend school. The direct implication of this is that if the income received be forced to make major decisions concerning the level of education their children would receive.
Inequality to educational opportunity
Cummins (n.d) asserts that there is still inequality in access to educational opportunities. This results in the imbalance that is prevalent in enrolment, participation, completion and attainment and this affects the kind of jobs one gets and the disparities in wages. This inequality is heightened by certain factors which UNICEF (2011:3) listed as
Location
Income
Gender
Location
This looks at the home location of people with respect to the location of educational facilities and the ease with which people make use of the opportunities the presence of these educational facilities have to offer. Hanushek and Yilmaz (2011) opine that a family or household would need to make a choice as to how to make use of educational opportunities considering the costs involved in the entire process. As such, while schools abound in urban areas, and presents a better trade off considering the cost of transportation, in the face of economic realities in Africa and Nigeria in particular, the choices being made every day as to the need to access education or even complete an educational programme whether at the primary, secondary or tertiary level.
Income
Income addresses the availability of cash which ensures that a person gets to pay for educational expenses. It influences the chances for a good education. Berman and Feuer (2014) asserts that income and wealth inequality play a major part in the educational attainment. Hence, bridging the gap between education and gender should address the increasing spate of income inequality. And, in cases where there is glaring poverty or low family income, the chances of the girl going to school becomes rather slim especially since traditional gender roles expect her to assist in the home either as a helper by taking on the role of caring for her siblings or as a financially contributor to the upkeep of the family. This puts the female child at a disadvantage. In addition, Erola Jalonen & Hannu (2016) posits that children from families with low income would likely not take advantage of educational opportunities. This also could impact on the extent of educational attainment a child has and which child goes to school.
Gender
In the face of the many choices that people have to make, as regards the education of children vis-a-viz boys and girls, parents have to make the difficult choice of picking one gender over the other. Several gaps exist between the sexes but more pronounced is the pay gap and the types of jobs that are left for women to do. National coalition for affirmative action (NCAA, n.d) asserts that gender-based division of labour promote gender bias especially as it relates to the rights, privileges and entitlements of males and females. They argue that the employment opportunities that are available to women are mostly restricted to those with low renumeration.
Thus, effectively bridging the gap between education and gender would require a careful review of existing practices and in its’ place the right structure which would engender right practices be put in place, they include
The elimination of cultural barriers which places the female child at a disadvantage.
The eradication of poverty which is a major limiting factor to the ease with which the girl child accesses educational opportunities
The expansion of access to quality education by ensuring that schools are located in areas that provide better cost implication foe parents
The introduction of policies in the education sector which would promote the principles of equality for both sexes and pave the way for more females to assume positions of authority.
With the increase in population comes the need to employ more teachers especially females to serve as role models to younger ones.
References
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