The school serves the all-important role of ensuring that the desired growth is actualized, regardless of whatsoever challenges and interferences that may likely arise from certain quarters such as culture.
The school plays the core function of knowledge, and/or skills transfer through generations for the active participation of individuals in society. Sociologists believe that the school is a microcosm of society, and inadvertently reflects the core values of society which it must continually propagate in order to remain relevant.
Culture as an integral part of society is a well-established fact. For the most part, culture is a major part of the structure which holds a society, and in most cases, informs our decisions, actions and inactions and perceptions of not just educational policies but to the practice of education.
Culture as an integral part of society is a well-established fact. For the most part, culture is a major part of the structure which holds a society, and in most cases, informs our decisions, actions and inactions and perceptions of not just educational policies but to the practice of education.
On this ground, one can say that the prevailing culture of a people influences to a large extent the way and manner in which learning takes place the world over. Thus, the actual experience of learning is impacted by the cultural principles and norms of a society.
While this may have its pros, the misunderstanding that may likely arise due to cultural differences in the classroom could pose a serious limitation to effective learning especially when its place, role, and usage is not understood by either the learner or the teacher.
While cultural influences in education cannot be helped, understanding how it could likely position students to perform better in their academics would be of immense help to the academic performance of learners.
While cultural influences in education cannot be helped, understanding how it could likely position students to perform better in their academics would be of immense help to the academic performance of learners.
Formal learning takes place in the classroom in school environments under controlled settings, however learning is not restricted to what happens within the school premises but covers a whole range of experiences gathered from sources other than the school such as the family, peers and media. All these experiences alongside the learning obtained from formal learning is aimed at the transmission of culture and relevant social change.
Barnhardt (2006) identifies the objective of schooling vis-a-viz the learning process to include cultural assimilation among others. This stance is founded on the basis that, schools induce acculturative influences, by unconsciously introducing patterns and ways of thinking which reflect our culture into the school.
He opines that as long as schools continue to teach learners in ways which transmit societal core values and behaviours which society deems allowable, schools promote cultural assimilation. (Barnhardt, 2006:np)
However, for Nigeria a nation prided for her heterogeinity, this could constitute a problem as there is no commonly adopted culture used as a national culture. Since different regions and tribes have varying cultures which apply to them, leaving a student who is not from a region looking like a misfit.
However, for Nigeria a nation prided for her heterogeinity, this could constitute a problem as there is no commonly adopted culture used as a national culture. Since different regions and tribes have varying cultures which apply to them, leaving a student who is not from a region looking like a misfit.
This leaves one without a clear cut definition of normal behavior and juvenile delinquency as what is normal in one culture may be perceived as rude and deviant in another.
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory propounded by Geert Hofstede, a Dutch anthropologist and social psychologist who studied the different interactions between cultures in 1991, provides the necessary link between cultural values and the prevailing systems of education using data obtained from IBM. Harris (2014) posits that this link between values and education includes communication links, transfer of knowledge, role perception and good interpersonal relations.
Hofstede stipulates that for a good understanding of the relationship between learning and culture, six dimensions must be addressed. They are;
Culture encompasses the totality of what we believe and do. Linton in Haralambos, Holborn, Chapman and Moore (2013) posits that the culture of a society is the way of life of its’ members, including the collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share and transmit from generation to generation.
Hofstede in Harris (2014:5) defines culture as the collective programming of the mind that differentiates the members of one group of people from another. As such, it can be referred to as a state of the mind, moreso, as what is good and acceptable for one group might just be unacceptable for another. As Jenkins in Haralambos et al (2013:727) puts it, “it is all which is symbolic, the learned…aspects of human society”. In support Nakpodia (2010) opines that aspects of cultural practices which are held in high esteem are protected and passed down from one generation to another.
In the light of this fact, Munro (n.d) asserts that the cultural context of learning provides avenues through which learners can display what they have learnt especially in their interactions with teacher and peers. It is in the course of this interaction that students are exposed to creative, critical ways of solving problems and so bring a realization of the limitation of their knowledge and what more could be learnt when their already existing knowledge is challenged and proven inadequate initiating the need to update existing knowledge.
The end result of this process is usually an increased desire to acquire new knowledge through existing cultural institutions of which the school is one. Others include the home, the media, peers and the church/mosque. However, it is important to look at the role of culture in shaping experiences, perception and learning.
To achieve this, Kennedy (2013) asserts that societies will need to examine the framework of the learning process and the not so apparent divides between different cultures and the actual teaching and learning that takes in classrooms. Also, a clear definition of normal behaviour by learner would have to be deciphered as different cultures hold different positions on what is termed normal behavior. Rosenberg, Westling and McLesky (2008) opine that these differences may lead to premature judgement of students as being disrespectful by classroom teachers while the learner struggles to identify what actions they took that led to the concern.
Bennet in Rosenberg, Westling and McLesky (2008) asserts that American children are taught to make eye contact as a show of respect while actively participating in class discussions, and, teachers view class participation as a sign of competence. In contrast, cultures like those in Asia do not support learners speaking up but encourage the learner to keep quiet and listen to the teacher as the teacher is viewed as the authority in that field.
Collectivist perspective to learning
Nigeria, is a classic example of a nation where Hofstede’s dimensions come to play. Looking at the power distance index for example, learners from hierarchical cultures that encourage inequality especially among people and places the teacher on a pedestal may feel disappointed in the realization of the fact that his voicing his opinions in front of the teacher may be seen as disrespectful.
If a class culture of equality is built and discussions encouraged, with the teacher open and acting as a facilitator, critical thinking and debate between students and with teacher will result in better learning experiences.
Schools that promote individualism encourage independence and push learners to greater personal achievements through the introduction of competitions where learners work as separate entities instead of working as part of a group. This creates an analytic approach to learning but on the downside breeds selfish learners who think more in terms of what they stand to gain when made to work in groups.
Damola (2012) asserts that there is this erroneous reasoning among individualistic learners that keeping back certain knowledge would give a competitive edge in the course of learning. Kastanakis and Voyer in Internet A (2015) assert that collectivist societies like Eastern societies tend to be humble. This is reflected in schools which promote the collectivist culture, where learners are encouraged to put the interest of others over and above theirs as they work as a group, individual success is measured in terms of group success.
Masculinity vs Femininity is seen by the importance culture places on certain virtues which are basically seen as masculine such as assertiveness, ambition and power. Masculinity is promoted in schools as asserted by Lynch (2016) when the girl is taught to behave in ways which build relationships while the assertive, stubborn and ambitious nature of the male learner is encouraged. Schools with a high masculinity index tend to promote freedom, curiosity, inventive and bright spirit of learning for both sexes.
Learners from cultures of restraint delay gratification to perform better in the classroom as opposed to the learner who gratifies every desire. These desires could come in the form of leisure, social media participation and the likes. Just like long term learners who are focused and set out goals for the future with which to guide their academic pursuit.
Application of culture on teaching and learning
Since culture influences the attitude of learners and their perception of learning experience, and Nigeria is a society known for cultural hheterogeneity, teachers should observe the unique characteristics of their students in the course of learning to establish a learning pattern for each child to help them choose how best to effectively reach individual learners.
A good knowledge of students’ cultural background and approach to learning would help the teacher identify those who are analytical and those who fall in the holistic category and harness their strengths in ways which would be beneficial to both classes of learners. Also, Munro (n.d:5) asserts that “many children who are gifted have difficulty coping socially and interpersonally because their peer group may not encourage the honest display of knowledge by them”.
This could lead to deliberate poor performance in school by the learner. So, the much-needed scaffolding support that the gifted child needs should be provided by the teacher. This is in line with Deslislie in Sapon- Shevin (1995) who in support asserts that gifted learners need to be in classrooms where they are appreciated and supported.
Kearney (1996) argue that gifted and exceptional learners need othe opportunity to acquire new knowledge calling for the teacher to make adaptations where and when necessary. The teacher would have to make classroom learning easier for all students by infusing a bit of competition in lesson and group based assignments.
Assessing the kind of tasks each learner can achieve when guided by either a more knowledgeable adult or peer by the teacher, will expose ways in which those with learning problems can then be helped. Jegede and Okebukola (1991) argue that when a learner is not open to, or is influenced by a culture which is indifferent to learning a particular skill, the learner ultimately finds learning that skill as a challenge.
Guttierrez in Rosenberg et al opines that teachers and educationists need a good understanding of the different ideologies surrounding each culture as well as their patterns of group engagement to be able to help learners showcase what they have learned.
The implication of culture on learning in Nigeria
Culture has profound implications for teaching and learning. Harris (2014:7) highlights these implications to include the following:
Teacher expectation of students should thus be based on an informed knowledge of learner’s cultural practice to ensure learners are not judged prematurely or on face value. This, if not correctly done, may lead to labeling, deviance and ultimate fulfillment of teacher prophecy due to a non-conformance to existing social patterns in the classroom.
Assessment instead should be based on how well a task is performed by a learner compared to others. The teacher can thus determine the volume of tasks a learner can handle on their own and when guided by an adult.
Classroom interactions should take cognizance of the learners’ culture without overriding the classroom culture to create a positive synergy that will benefit both the learner and the teacher. For the Nigerian system of education, a good fusion of hierarchy and equality in the classroom is key. This calls for the authority of the teacher to be established without suppressing the ability of the learner to actively participate in the learning process.
Thus classrooms will need to be set in ways that will promote learning and students enrolled within international limits of acceptable class size.
The source of any knowledge should be questioned by both teachers and learners to ascertain whether it is a product of cultural influences or an alternative perception of what is really formed as a result of culture.
The perceived strengths and weakness of each culture should be harnessed by the teacher, to ensure that the conflicting nature of cultural values does not affect the learning process or the learner in particular by promoting cultural debates and discourse among learners for a better understanding of why their classmates behave the way they do and how best to deal with each other teacher inclusive in order to maximize the benefits of the learning process.
References
Barnhardt, R. (2006). Culture, Community, and the Curriculum. Retrieved 21st Jan. 2018 from www.ankn.uaf.edu/curriculum/Articles/RayB/ccc.html
Berlitz, B. (2011). Geert Hofstede and Cultural Dimensions Theory. Review. Retrieved 23rd Jan.2018 from news.telelangue.com/en/2011/09/cultural theory world speaking.
Damola, G. (2012). The Effects of the Nigerian Culture on Education, Intelligence, and Creativity. Retrieved from blog.9jeducation.org/2012/12/the effects-of-Nigerian-culture-on.html.
Haralambos, M., Heald, C., Holborn, M., Chapman, S. & Moore, S. (2013) Sociology. Themes and Perspectives. (8th ed.). New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
Harris, A. (2014). Global Cultures and English Language Learning. Retrieved Jan. 2018 from https://www.ueca.edu.au.
Internet A, (2015). How Does Culture Affect Education.?retrieved 21st Jan. 2018 from https://www.haikudeck.com
Jegede, O. & Okebukola, P. A. O. (1991). The Effect of Instruction on Socio-Cultural Beliefs Hindering the Learning of Science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 28(3) 275-285.
Kennedy, K. J. (2013). Culture and Learning: Reconstructing a search on Learning for Students in Asia and the Pacific. Education Policy Research Series. Discussion Document no2
Lynch, M. (2016) 3 Signs of Gender Discrimination in the Classroom You Need to Know. Retrieved 15th March 2017 from www.theadvocate.org/3-signs-gender-discrimination-classroom-need
Munro, J. (N.d). Socio-Cultural Influences on Learning. Retrieved 22nd Jan. 2018 from https://students.education.unimelb.edu.au/selage
Rosenberg, M. S., Westling, D. L. & Mcleskey, J. (2008) The Impact of Culture on Education. Retrieved 21st Jan. 2018 https://www.education.com/reference/article/impact of culture.edu
Sapon-Shevin, M (1995) Why Gifted Students Belong in Inclusive Schools. The Inclusive School, Educational Leadership. 52(4) 64-70. Retrieved 2nd March 2017 from www.ascd.org
Tiffin, A. M. (2012, June 10). How Culture, Belief System Retard Girl Child Education. Vanguard News. Retrieved 22nd Jan. 2018 from https://www.vanguardngr.com
Cultural Dimensions Theory (CDT)
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory propounded by Geert Hofstede, a Dutch anthropologist and social psychologist who studied the different interactions between cultures in 1991, provides the necessary link between cultural values and the prevailing systems of education using data obtained from IBM. Harris (2014) posits that this link between values and education includes communication links, transfer of knowledge, role perception and good interpersonal relations.
Hofstede stipulates that for a good understanding of the relationship between learning and culture, six dimensions must be addressed. They are;
- Power distance index (Equality vs Inequality)
- Collectivism vs Individualism
- Uncertainty Avoidance vs Uncertainty Tolerance
- Masculinity vs Feminity
- Temporal Orientation Indulgence vs Restraint
- Long term vs Short term
- Power distance index (PDI): talks about the extent to which less powerful members of organisations and institutions accept and expect that power is shared equally. This index deals with the feelings of people concerning the sharing of power in a culture. A high score is indicative of the fact that powerful members of society accept their place in the face of a hierarchical structure. In this kind of culture, the teacher could be said to occupy a high position and seen as the final authority. On the other hand, low power distance implies that a culture is democratic and members of such cultures viewed as equals.
- Collectivism vs Individualism: this looks at the integration of individuals into groups. Collectivism looks at the ability of students to work and learn effectively when put in groups to ensure group collaboration and positive learning outcomes. Individualism on the other hand, deals with the promotion of independence in the learner or individual while promoting completion amongst learners with the provision of the necessary input or stimulus which would guarantee success.
- Uncertainty Avoidance Index vs Uncertainty Tolerance: this measures the way society’s deals with unforeseen events, situations and/or change. A high score for this index indicates that the culture with such score is not too tolerant to change and tend to attempt eliminating the unknown with the introduction of strict rules and regulations. The opposite is the case for cultures with low scores on this index and so institute fewer laws and loose guidelines but most importantly these cultures and societies are open to change.
- Masculinity vs Femininity: this index looks at the importance placed on what could be called stereotypically masculine virtues and values with emphasis on power, ambition, materialism and assertiveness as well feminine values with emphasis on interpersonal relationships. Thus, societies with high masculinity index show glaring differences between the genders and as such are much more ambitious and competitive. While those with a low score show much more equality between the genders and emphasis is placed on building relationships.
- Long Term Orientation vs Short Term Orientation: this index examines the time horizon of a society. Long term orientation cultures visualize time as linear and are futuristic rather than dwelling in the past or present as such they are goal oriented and value reward. In contrast, short term oriented cultures place more emphasis on old traditional values and methods, take considerable time to build relationships and see time as an interconnected circle. Thus, they believe that what cannot be done today can always be done tomorrow and are prone to procrastination.
- Indulgence vs Restraint: this index assesses the ability of a culture to meet and satisfy the immediate need and desires of its’ members. Societies that value restraint have strict social rules and norms under which gratification is regulated and or discouraged. Indulgent societies allow free gratification of needs. Restraint societies regulate gratification through the imposition of strict social norm.
Culture and learning in the Classroom
Culture encompasses the totality of what we believe and do. Linton in Haralambos, Holborn, Chapman and Moore (2013) posits that the culture of a society is the way of life of its’ members, including the collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share and transmit from generation to generation.
Hofstede in Harris (2014:5) defines culture as the collective programming of the mind that differentiates the members of one group of people from another. As such, it can be referred to as a state of the mind, moreso, as what is good and acceptable for one group might just be unacceptable for another. As Jenkins in Haralambos et al (2013:727) puts it, “it is all which is symbolic, the learned…aspects of human society”. In support Nakpodia (2010) opines that aspects of cultural practices which are held in high esteem are protected and passed down from one generation to another.
In the light of this fact, Munro (n.d) asserts that the cultural context of learning provides avenues through which learners can display what they have learnt especially in their interactions with teacher and peers. It is in the course of this interaction that students are exposed to creative, critical ways of solving problems and so bring a realization of the limitation of their knowledge and what more could be learnt when their already existing knowledge is challenged and proven inadequate initiating the need to update existing knowledge.
The end result of this process is usually an increased desire to acquire new knowledge through existing cultural institutions of which the school is one. Others include the home, the media, peers and the church/mosque. However, it is important to look at the role of culture in shaping experiences, perception and learning.
To achieve this, Kennedy (2013) asserts that societies will need to examine the framework of the learning process and the not so apparent divides between different cultures and the actual teaching and learning that takes in classrooms. Also, a clear definition of normal behaviour by learner would have to be deciphered as different cultures hold different positions on what is termed normal behavior. Rosenberg, Westling and McLesky (2008) opine that these differences may lead to premature judgement of students as being disrespectful by classroom teachers while the learner struggles to identify what actions they took that led to the concern.
Bennet in Rosenberg, Westling and McLesky (2008) asserts that American children are taught to make eye contact as a show of respect while actively participating in class discussions, and, teachers view class participation as a sign of competence. In contrast, cultures like those in Asia do not support learners speaking up but encourage the learner to keep quiet and listen to the teacher as the teacher is viewed as the authority in that field.
Hofstede’s view of Individualist and Collectivism Individualist perspective to learning
Individualist perspective to learning- Students work independently: helping others may be considered as cheating
- Students engage in discussions and arguments to think critically
- Property belongs to individuals and others must seek permission to borrow it
- Teachers manages the school environment indirectly and encourages student self control
- Parents are integral to child’s academic progress and participate actively
Collectivist perspective to learning
- Students work with peers and provide assistance when needed
- Students are quiet and respectful in class in order to learn more efficiently
- Property is communal
- Teacher is the primary authority, but peers guide
- Parents yield to teachers expertize to provide academic instructions and guidance.
Nigeria, is a classic example of a nation where Hofstede’s dimensions come to play. Looking at the power distance index for example, learners from hierarchical cultures that encourage inequality especially among people and places the teacher on a pedestal may feel disappointed in the realization of the fact that his voicing his opinions in front of the teacher may be seen as disrespectful.
If a class culture of equality is built and discussions encouraged, with the teacher open and acting as a facilitator, critical thinking and debate between students and with teacher will result in better learning experiences.
Schools that promote individualism encourage independence and push learners to greater personal achievements through the introduction of competitions where learners work as separate entities instead of working as part of a group. This creates an analytic approach to learning but on the downside breeds selfish learners who think more in terms of what they stand to gain when made to work in groups.
Damola (2012) asserts that there is this erroneous reasoning among individualistic learners that keeping back certain knowledge would give a competitive edge in the course of learning. Kastanakis and Voyer in Internet A (2015) assert that collectivist societies like Eastern societies tend to be humble. This is reflected in schools which promote the collectivist culture, where learners are encouraged to put the interest of others over and above theirs as they work as a group, individual success is measured in terms of group success.
Masculinity vs Femininity is seen by the importance culture places on certain virtues which are basically seen as masculine such as assertiveness, ambition and power. Masculinity is promoted in schools as asserted by Lynch (2016) when the girl is taught to behave in ways which build relationships while the assertive, stubborn and ambitious nature of the male learner is encouraged. Schools with a high masculinity index tend to promote freedom, curiosity, inventive and bright spirit of learning for both sexes.
Learners from cultures of restraint delay gratification to perform better in the classroom as opposed to the learner who gratifies every desire. These desires could come in the form of leisure, social media participation and the likes. Just like long term learners who are focused and set out goals for the future with which to guide their academic pursuit.
Application of culture on teaching and learning
Since culture influences the attitude of learners and their perception of learning experience, and Nigeria is a society known for cultural hheterogeneity, teachers should observe the unique characteristics of their students in the course of learning to establish a learning pattern for each child to help them choose how best to effectively reach individual learners.
A good knowledge of students’ cultural background and approach to learning would help the teacher identify those who are analytical and those who fall in the holistic category and harness their strengths in ways which would be beneficial to both classes of learners. Also, Munro (n.d:5) asserts that “many children who are gifted have difficulty coping socially and interpersonally because their peer group may not encourage the honest display of knowledge by them”.
This could lead to deliberate poor performance in school by the learner. So, the much-needed scaffolding support that the gifted child needs should be provided by the teacher. This is in line with Deslislie in Sapon- Shevin (1995) who in support asserts that gifted learners need to be in classrooms where they are appreciated and supported.
Kearney (1996) argue that gifted and exceptional learners need othe opportunity to acquire new knowledge calling for the teacher to make adaptations where and when necessary. The teacher would have to make classroom learning easier for all students by infusing a bit of competition in lesson and group based assignments.
Assessing the kind of tasks each learner can achieve when guided by either a more knowledgeable adult or peer by the teacher, will expose ways in which those with learning problems can then be helped. Jegede and Okebukola (1991) argue that when a learner is not open to, or is influenced by a culture which is indifferent to learning a particular skill, the learner ultimately finds learning that skill as a challenge.
Guttierrez in Rosenberg et al opines that teachers and educationists need a good understanding of the different ideologies surrounding each culture as well as their patterns of group engagement to be able to help learners showcase what they have learned.
The implication of culture on learning in Nigeria
Culture has profound implications for teaching and learning. Harris (2014:7) highlights these implications to include the following:
- Teaching methods used in the classroom
- Teacher expectation of students
- The classroom interactions
- Classroom size and set up
- The source of knowledge strengths and weaknesses
Teacher expectation of students should thus be based on an informed knowledge of learner’s cultural practice to ensure learners are not judged prematurely or on face value. This, if not correctly done, may lead to labeling, deviance and ultimate fulfillment of teacher prophecy due to a non-conformance to existing social patterns in the classroom.
Assessment instead should be based on how well a task is performed by a learner compared to others. The teacher can thus determine the volume of tasks a learner can handle on their own and when guided by an adult.
Classroom interactions should take cognizance of the learners’ culture without overriding the classroom culture to create a positive synergy that will benefit both the learner and the teacher. For the Nigerian system of education, a good fusion of hierarchy and equality in the classroom is key. This calls for the authority of the teacher to be established without suppressing the ability of the learner to actively participate in the learning process.
Thus classrooms will need to be set in ways that will promote learning and students enrolled within international limits of acceptable class size.
The source of any knowledge should be questioned by both teachers and learners to ascertain whether it is a product of cultural influences or an alternative perception of what is really formed as a result of culture.
The perceived strengths and weakness of each culture should be harnessed by the teacher, to ensure that the conflicting nature of cultural values does not affect the learning process or the learner in particular by promoting cultural debates and discourse among learners for a better understanding of why their classmates behave the way they do and how best to deal with each other teacher inclusive in order to maximize the benefits of the learning process.
References
Barnhardt, R. (2006). Culture, Community, and the Curriculum. Retrieved 21st Jan. 2018 from www.ankn.uaf.edu/curriculum/Articles/RayB/ccc.html
Berlitz, B. (2011). Geert Hofstede and Cultural Dimensions Theory. Review. Retrieved 23rd Jan.2018 from news.telelangue.com/en/2011/09/cultural theory world speaking.
Damola, G. (2012). The Effects of the Nigerian Culture on Education, Intelligence, and Creativity. Retrieved from blog.9jeducation.org/2012/12/the effects-of-Nigerian-culture-on.html.
Haralambos, M., Heald, C., Holborn, M., Chapman, S. & Moore, S. (2013) Sociology. Themes and Perspectives. (8th ed.). New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
Harris, A. (2014). Global Cultures and English Language Learning. Retrieved Jan. 2018 from https://www.ueca.edu.au.
Internet A, (2015). How Does Culture Affect Education.?retrieved 21st Jan. 2018 from https://www.haikudeck.com
Jegede, O. & Okebukola, P. A. O. (1991). The Effect of Instruction on Socio-Cultural Beliefs Hindering the Learning of Science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 28(3) 275-285.
Kennedy, K. J. (2013). Culture and Learning: Reconstructing a search on Learning for Students in Asia and the Pacific. Education Policy Research Series. Discussion Document no2
Lynch, M. (2016) 3 Signs of Gender Discrimination in the Classroom You Need to Know. Retrieved 15th March 2017 from www.theadvocate.org/3-signs-gender-discrimination-classroom-need
Munro, J. (N.d). Socio-Cultural Influences on Learning. Retrieved 22nd Jan. 2018 from https://students.education.unimelb.edu.au/selage
Rosenberg, M. S., Westling, D. L. & Mcleskey, J. (2008) The Impact of Culture on Education. Retrieved 21st Jan. 2018 https://www.education.com/reference/article/impact of culture.edu
Sapon-Shevin, M (1995) Why Gifted Students Belong in Inclusive Schools. The Inclusive School, Educational Leadership. 52(4) 64-70. Retrieved 2nd March 2017 from www.ascd.org
Tiffin, A. M. (2012, June 10). How Culture, Belief System Retard Girl Child Education. Vanguard News. Retrieved 22nd Jan. 2018 from https://www.vanguardngr.com
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